Psych Essays - Credit, Personal Finance, Credit Card, Credit History

Norkis Grant Zakiya Odoi ENC1101TR2:00pm 09/30/2012 Hard Times Will Follow I turn the TV up louder because now my mom is yelling on the phone to Chase about the bill she just received. She sounds as if she is in a war but the slamming of the phone lets me know she didn?t win. I was just out this morning with her and seen that her eyes were glued to a new pair of Burberry shoes. She persuaded herself that she needed them like the other millions of pairs she has jammed in her closet and found herself swiping that same card that she is now arguing with the bank over. How could she really put up any argument? People are in debt because they do not know the difference between priorities and desires. To begin, I believe the first cause of debt would be the helpless issue people have with saving. When growing up we are drawn to a very fancy life style through television and magazines which create a big hole in our pockets. Not everyone in life is born into a millionaire family or with doctors for parents so we must live a life of spending safely but we focus too much on what we want rather then what we need. The other night my best friend Zoie called me in panic around 1 am stating how she is stuck on the side on I-95 with her tank on E. Instead of putting priorities first Zoie decided to go out on a date with little money assuming that the guy was going to pay; little did she know, he didn?t. I warned her if she didn?t learn how to save she would pay for it and now she had bigger things to worry about: a car with no gas, a phone with little battery and no clue on how she was getting to work in the morning. And not being able to get to work means you don?t get paid and neither do the bills. Sometimes such a little sacrifice can save for weeks of headaches. However I believe people get swallowed by debt because of our bad habit of not being able to say no when shopping. When you enter stores like Marshalls, Ross, or TJMAX people can never walk in just for one thing and walk out with just that. Those stores surround customers with alluring items that you may not necessarily need but does catch your eye. I worked in a retail store as a cashier and every time I got a customer they always said the same thing: ?Oh, I think it?s so funny that I always come in here just to return something and end up picking up more things on the way out.? With notebooks, chips, wallets, kid toys, even drinks in case they?re thirsty as the customer waits to be rung up, I don?t have a hard time believing that. The more we shop the less we save. Another reason why I think we fall into debt is because of the overloading of responsibilities we put on ourselves. As a college student my biggest worry is to have to get a loan for school. With no financial aid help I feel as if choosing to go to a major college without scholarships or grants would be completely insane but not impossible. Loans are offered as long as you are attending school but are expected to be paid back after graduating. However going to school for many years doesn?t guarantee a good job to assist you with the money to pay the balance due. So if you are busy buying the latest fashions you may have a hard time keeping up with the payments. Although everyday people are applying to credit cards it is one of the biggest reasons for debt. Banks are there to help but our society seems to be too dependable on a credit card which is money that isn?t ours and needs to be paid back. People don?t understand the seriousness of this problem, which is it affects our credit score. Like a professor once told me ?Your credit score is basically the governments? way of telling how responsible you are without them even seeing

How does Shakespeare present the character of Shylock in the play Essays

How does Shakespeare present the character of Shylock in the play Essays How does Shakespeare present the character of Shylock in the play Paper How does Shakespeare present the character of Shylock in the play Paper Essay Topic: Play Shylock is introduced as a wealthy, Jewish man who lends money and charges interest. He seems to know Antonio, a local merchant in Venice, as when Antonio goes to him for money he says how Antonio has previously spat on him. We do not know whether Shakespeare meant this to be literate or metaphorical but we do know that many Christians hated Shylock as in Elizabethan times usurers were looked down at as usury was against Christian practise and Shylock was a Jew. Shylock takes a key part in the bond plot, a plot that involved the lending of some Ducats to Antonio so long as if he need to forfeit he must give willingly a 1lb of his flesh. Antonio agrees as the way Shylock said it to him made it sound like it was a joke, and he was certain that his ships would be arriving soon with more than enough to pay off the debt. Further on in the play, we are introduced to Jessica, Shylocks daughter. Jessica is not very fond of her father and we see this in action when she runs away with a young Christian and is converted. She also steals a number of precious jewels and Ducats from her father. This sends Shylock into a rage and he is pleasantly surprised to find out that Antonios ships have failed him and so Antonio must forfeit the bond. Shylock seems more irate that his ducats are lost then his daughter. This is his chance for revenge against Antonio and taking out his anger about his daughter. He even says: I would my daughter were dead at my foot, and the jewels in her ear this shows him in his evil state and that he would rather see his daughter dead if it meant getting his jewels back. He goes to the courtroom fully prepared to exit with a pound of his enemies flesh. However, the fact that shylock keeps making a point of showing importance against sticking to the exact words of the bond go against him. When the Judge (Portia in disguise) reminds him that he didnt ask for blood and so if any blood spills when he takes the flesh then he will have all his possessions taken from him, as he will have broken the bond and law. When Shylock decides he would rather take the money that Bassanio has agreed to pay, Portia refuses him it, as he must take the bond and also reminds him that if he takes too little flesh or too much then he will be breaking the law. Shylock is trapped, there is no humane way that he can take the forfeit and so he pleads with the judge to forgive him and spare him of his life. The judge rules that Shylock must give half his goods the state of Venice and the other half to Antonio. Antonio says that on Shylocks death, half the money will go to his daughter and her Christian husband, he also demands that Shylock become a Christian. The way people view the character of Shylock has changed through the centuries, in the seventeenth century he was seen as a savage villain who is contrasted with the other characters comical and romantic styles. However in the nineteenth century, people focused on the sufferings of Shylock and why he behaves like he does. The reason for the change in opinion could be explained by the way anti-Semitism is seen. When the play was written, it was common to hear anti-Semitic views by the Christians, they often made jokes at those less fortunate and some could say that Shylocks purpose was for some to laugh at a Jewish persons expense. For example in act 3 scene 1 Salarino and Solanio talk about Shylocks misfortunes rather sarcastically. One opinion about the way that Shakespeare presents Shylock in the play is that he is shows him to be a Jewish man who is misunderstood, mistreated and unfairly accused. Shylock can be played as an attractive, sympathetic figure. The ending of the play helps this view very strongly as everything is taken from including his possessions and even his religion. It seems at the end that Shylock has nothing left to live for, even his daughter has played traitor to him and run off with the Christians. I hate him for he is a Christian He lends out money gratis and brings down the rate of here with us in Venice Shylock despises Antonio because of his religion and because his money lending affects Shylocks living standards and how much money he earns. It makes us feel compassion towards Shylock as opposed to Antonio in the first half of the play as by Antonio lending money for nothing it is preventing Shylock from earning more. His speech If you prick us (Act 3, Scene 1) makes us view him with more sympathy than before. He is asking for understanding and Shakespeare may have done this so that the audience could understand his anger at the way he is treated by the Christians and explains why he feels revenge is rightfully his. Yet if any sympathy was gained in this speech it was changed after he uses it to justify his constant refusal for mercy and plain revenge. Towards the end of the trial scene, Shylock is shown in a dark light as well as where we begin to feel sympathetic again. The fact that he has come fully prepared with his own knife and scales shows us the determination that he gets what he came for and it shows that he could be very disturbed to have planned it already. He constantly rejects the pleas for mercy, which could say that Shakespeare wanted to gain trust of the Elizabethans who had anti-Semitism views, if they thought Shakespeare was trying to show pity to the Jew and make him look friendly then no one would see his show as people would think he was trying to make the Elizabethans like Jewish people. So to appeal to everyone you could say he was trying to take no sides showing each character with good and bad qualities, Shakespeare was not anti-Semitic. You could say that Shylock was presented as a villain but for comical purposes. I have already mentioned how the Elizabethans saw Jews to be evil and that when they see him suffering this may have shown some crude and grotesque humour. The way Shylock is mocked in the finial scene is seen to be fairly humorous for Elizabethan standards. In the film version we watched early on in the year Al Pacino played Shylock. The way he played the part, in my opinion, made the audience sympathise with him more as his facial expressions showed that he felt just for all the wrong things he did. In the film, it showed the courtroom scene to be played in a sympathetic way. Al Pacino shows great empathy with his character when Shylock has to decide whether to take the flesh even though he will be punished. Shylocks eventual outcome is rather malicious and the way they treat him considering they should be happy that their friend is not going to be killed is rather heartless. They probably think that their actions are justified as Shylock did intend to kill Antonio, yet if they knew how much it hurts to suffer they would have let him go with no further punishment. Also if they cared about their religion so much they would understand how it would feel if they were made to change their religion.

Reprocessing Nuclear Fuel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 1

Reprocessing Nuclear Fuel - Essay Example Handling of the radioactive wastes is dependent on the time taken for half the atoms of the radionuclides to decay. The wastes with long half-life are easier to handle compared to those wastes with short half-life. Reprocessing of nuclei waste is mainly objected to safeguarding human population and the environment prior to releasing the wastes to the environment. This process mainly reduces the radionuclides concentrations in the waste, which are presumed harmless. Common radioactive wastes are categorized into very low level wastes, low level wastes, intermediate level wastes and high level wastes. Very low level wastes contain radioactive material at concentrations accepted not to be harmful to human population and the surrounding environment, main components are materials of: concrete, plaster, bricks, metals, valves and piping produced during operations, some food processing industries chemical industries and industries dealing in steel also produce this levels because of the nat ural radioactivity in the manufacturing process (Nikitin, Andrews & Holt, 2009, pp112- 167). Low level wastes are mainly generated from hospitals, nuclear fuel cycles and industries, they include: clothing, filters, papers and rags that mostly contains radioactivity with short lifes.They can be buried at shallow level, they doesn’t require shielding during handling and transportation. The wastes are compacted and incinerated before getting disposed. Low level wastes can comprise 90% volume but only 1% of the radioactivity of all radioactive waste. Intermediate level waste contain higher amounts of radioactivity, mainly comprise resins chemical sludge, metal fuel claddings and contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning.in handling these wastes the smaller once and those non solids can be solidified in concrete or bitumen to dispose, some of the intermediate level wastes requires shielding.7% of the intermediate level

Rhetorical analysis memo Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Rhetorical analysis memo - Assignment Example Today, the organization has over 2,500 members where they have put up programs to promote pig farming on a large scale. Ohio shelters over 4,100 pig farmers and many of these are operated by families and this organization ensures that they become successful in producing healthy pork for the nation (â€Å"What do pigs eat†). The mission of Ohio Pork Farmers organization is to help all the Ohio pork producers understand a healthy and safe environment for the pigs. The author’s purpose is to show the pig farmers the healthy process through diet that pigs under this organization undergo to produce quality and healthy pig products for the nation. The intent of the organization is to create a video that shows the benefits of modern commercial pig farming to produce the best pork products for the society. This video is most likely created for the larger Ohio community, who participate in pig farming to encourage them to join and partake in the extensive and controlled modern p ig farming process (â€Å"What do pigs eat†)? The intended audience is Ohio farmers and potential farmers to show them the steps the Ohio Pork Farmers organization is making to produce healthy pig products. By referencing to â€Å"modern† pig farming process, the video targets all private farmers to encourage them to become members, so that they benefit under the Ohio Pig Farmers organization. The video talks of pig feeds being â€Å"scientifically formulated† (â€Å"What do pigs eat†) to enlighten private farmers to join such an organization for a bigger commercial establishment. The author values modern pig farming and references this by citing that â€Å"modern pigs are fed on a diet of corn and soy beans (â€Å"What do pigs eat†). Through this revelation, it becomes apparent that the author values the process of a modern commercial farming unit where pigs are kept in controlled housing to get proper diet. In the

Sociology and Anthropology Essay Example for Free

Sociology and Anthropology Essay A. The Science of Sociology and Anthropology Sociology is the scientific study of human society and its origins, development, organizations, and institutions. ] It is a social science which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity, structures, and functions. A goal for many sociologists is to conduct research which may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the micro level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, culture, race and ethnicity, gender and sexuality, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, and deviance. As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to further subjects, such as health, medical, military and penal institutions, the Internet, environmental sociology, political economy and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge. Anthropology is the study of humans, past and present. To understand the full sweep and complexity of cultures across all of human history, anthropology draws and builds upon knowledge from the social and biological sciences as well as the humanities and physical sciences. A central concern of anthropologists is the application of knowledge to the solution of human problems. Historically, anthropologists in the United States have been trained in one of four areas: sociocultural anthropology, biological/physical anthropology, archaeology, and linguistics. Anthropologists often integrate the perspectives of several of these areas into their research, teaching, and professional lives. Sociology and anthropology are separate, but related, branches of the social sciences that study humans and society.  Once anthropology and sociology were similar in how they studied humans, but in the early part of the 20th century, their methodologies and foci diverged. B. The Development of Sociology and Anthropology The history of Anthropology and Sociology is long and full of invaluable insights into the human condition. It provides a mirror that reaches deep into ourselves and explains why we do things that are sometimes contradictory to logic, and most often in alliance with societal standards. For these reasons, Anthropology and Sociology have remained highly esteemed fields of study and continue to flourish as a library of social thought grows. August Comte was the first to coin the term sociology. He was not the first to create theories of sociology, but was the first to proclaim himself a sociologist. Comte was a functionalist who believed every aspect of society served a purpose. He is most famous for his idea of social statics and dynamics. Social statics is the study of social order, whereas social dynamics is the study of social change and progress. Dividing the study of sociology into these two categories created two different frames of reference from which sociology could be studied (Collins and Makowsky 26). The next significant development in sociology came with Karl Marx. Marx was a conflict theorist who believed that all aspects of society could be explained as a struggle between two or more opposing groups. There were three parts to Marxs theory. First, there was his sociology which established the class system (Collins and Makowsky 34). This system included the capitalists, or bourgeois, who owned the means of production and profited from exploiting workers, or the proletariat (Collins and Makowsky 40). Next, Marxs politics explained that a class struggle for power would be won by the group that best suits the evolving economy (Collins and Makowsky 36). Since the only way for the capitalist to profit is by exploiting the worker, and the worker cannot profit on his own because he does not own the means of production, capitalists could drive wages lower and lower until the workers revolt (Collins and Makowsky 41). Finally, Marx speculated that this revolt would occur because the worker would be gaining less from their work than what they put in. This was his social/political philosophy (Collins and Makowsky 45). At around the same time in the field of Anthropology the predominant school of thought was becoming the social evolutionists. These theorists used Charles Darwins theory of evolution to explain society (Collins and Makowsky 85). Herbert Spencer said that societies were like organisms in that they went from simple to complex and independent to interdependent. However, societies were not like organisms because they were not organized similarly or interconnected (Collins and Makowsky 85-86). Sir Edward Burnett Tylor was another social evolutionist who believed that all cultures were derived from a single body of information and that certain societies had less and others more (McGee and Warms 27). Lewis Henry Morgan perpetuated this idea by claiming that there were three types of societies: savage, barbarian, and civilized (McGee and Warms 41). The aspects of the society that determined how evolved the culture was along this scale were how people gained subsistence, the system of government, language, family, religion, house life and architecture, and the type of ownership of property (McGee and Warms 42). The three stages could be defined along the lines of inventions and discoveries and the types of primary institutions (McGee and Warms 46). Some years after the social evolutionists established their theories of Anthropology, Emile Durkheim made an impact on Sociology. Like Comte, he too was a functionalist. Durkheim created many theories, among them the most notable being that of the function of crime and Social Facts. Durkheim believed that the function of crime was to unify members of society. Crime provides a principle behind which most members of society can stand behind and become united. The repercussions of crime also teach the youth the norms and values of a society (Collins and Makowsky 105). Durkheim is also commended for his theory of Social Facts. A Social Fact is determined by a society and is not true across all societies, whereas facts are true across all societies (McGee and Warms 88). Another sociologist who was working at the same time as Emile Durkheim was Max Weber. Weber was a symbolic interactionalist who believed that all interactions in society represented a deeper characteristic of society. However, Weber was also a Marxist who deemed class, power, and status the foundation of society (Collins and Makowsky 120-121). Weber spent much of his time explaining the forms of government. He described two types of government: Patrimonialism and Bureaucracy. In Patrimonialism, positions in government were awarded via traditional legitimacy, or birth-right (Collins and Makowsky 126). No special skills were needed to fulfill job requirements and there were generally few to no rules. In Bureaucracy, people were appointed or elected for positions. This system used rational-legal legitimacy and contained a hierarchy. Bureaucracy required a great amount of specialization and included many rules and regulations (Collins and Makowsky 127). Two other symbolic interactionalists who made significant contributions to sociology around this time were Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead. Cooley developed the concept of the Looking-Glass self. The principle had three dimensions. First, people look at themselves as they think others see them. Then, they look for judgments others may be making about them. And finally, they evaluate those judgments and adjust their behavior accordingly (Collins and Makowsky 167). Mead also created a model of the self. In Meads theory, the first stage we encounter is the me. This is a stage in which we anticipate stimuli and react with formulated responses. As we mature, we enter the I where we are now able to see the expectations society has of us and we react with conditioned responses (Collins and Makowsky 174). After we are able to identify ourselves as part of a community, we adjust our actions to best suit the interests of the community (Collins and Makowsky 175). A new school of Anthropology developed shortly after the theories of Cooley and Mead. The school was Historical Particularism and it drew upon the work of Franz Boas and Alfred L.  Kroeber. Historical Particularism brought with it the idea that each society has a unique history based on different paths of development and therefore, no society is inferior to the next (McGee and Warms 130). Boas believed that one must immerse oneself in a culture in order to understand it and draw conclusions. This was starkly different to the anthropologists before him who used comparative studies to examine other cultures. Boas used ethnographic studies to document cultures that were about to be lost because of contact with the outside world (131-132). Kroeber was Boas student, however Kroeber took a different approach to anthropology. He did not believe that the individual played a significant role in the development of society, whereas Boas did (McGee and Warms 133). Kroebers major contribution to anthropological theory was his Eighteen Professions. These professions were eighteen beliefs about social evolution which Kroeber did not agree with. He believed that social evolution began on an assumption that society evolves like organisms, and did not believe heory should include assumptions (McGee and Warms 141). Three equally influential anthropologists of the same time period were Bronislaw Malinowski, Alfred Reginald Radcliff-Brown, and Edward Everet Evans-Pritchard. All three belonged to the Structural Functionalist school of anthropology. Structural Functionalists sought to understand the underlying structure of society. The most notable Structural Functionalist was Malinowski. He studied the Kula trade in New Guinea with the Trobriand Islanders. Malinowski discovered that necklaces and bracelets being exchanged in this system were not just gifts between tribes. They were in fact creating a relationship between the tribes so that other goods, such as food, could be traded freely because of the established bond between the two tribes (McGee and Warms 161). Radcliffe-Brown is best known for his research on the relationship a child holds with his or her mothers brother. He hypothesized that the mothers brother acts as a second, or surrogate, mother to the child whereas the father of the child acts as a disciplinarian. In addition, the child has access to the mothers brothers food and property if the mother dies and the mothers brother helps when the child is sick or if the mother is no longer capable of caring for the child. This explains the positive relationship that the mothers brother has with the child, and the negative relationship a child has with his or her father (McGee and Warms 177). Previous theorists such as Sigmund Freud had speculated that a negative relationship a son had with his father was a result of jealousy the son felt because the father was having sex with the mother (Collins and Makowsky 148). The last of the Structural Functionalists was Evans-Pritchard. He developed the idea of a Segmentary Lineage System. This was a system by which people see themselves in relationship to each other depending on how closely related they are to each other. For example, even if an individual is friends with someone from another family, they will take the side of a member of their own family before defending the friend outside their bloodline (McGee and Warms 191). During this time, another school of anthropology was developing. This was the school of Culture and Personality. Culture and Personality was defined by three themes: the relationships between culture and human nature, culture and individual personality, and culture and society typical socialization. It was pioneered by two anthropologists; Ruth Fulton Benedict and Margaret Mead (McGee and Warms 206). Benedicts major contribution was the highly influential concept of cultural relativism. Cultural relativism asserted that there are no superior or inferior cultures, only different cultures. Benedict also stressed that cultural configuration established the personality of its members. She was primarily interested in culture and human nature (McGee and Warms 209). Mead was chiefly concerned with culture and the individual. Her major contribution was a study on Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies. Mead studied three tribes: the Mundugumor, the Arapesh, and the Tchambuli. In the Mundugumor tribe, both sexes were aggressive head hunters. In the Arapesh tribe, both men and women were gentle and calm problem solvers. In the Tchambuli tribe, men were apt to gossip and provided nurturing while women were dominant. Since all three of these systems were very different from the western, patriarchal way of thinking, they contributed significantly to the study of anthropology (McGee and Warms 222). Another movement in anthropological thought began in this time period. It was called Cultural Ecology and Neo-Evolutionary Thought. Pioneered by Julian Steward and George Peter Murdock and focused on how societies adapt to their environments as a measurement of evolution (McGee and Warms 225). When Boas made ethnographic studies a standard in anthropology, cross-cultural studies had been abandoned. Murdock revived the practice of cross-cultural studies and created the Human Relations Area Files. This was a collection of my volumes documenting the organization of various cultures around the world (McGee and Warms 263). Murdock also contributed significantly to the study of divorce. He hypothesized that a stable marriage is more likely if one or more of three factors are in place. First, a bride price helped to secure a marriage because there was no obligation to repay the price and therefore marriage was profitable. Second, arranged marriage would stabilize a marriage. The final factor that would ensure the stability of a marriage was the crow. This is a situation in which women are stolen and would not be returned because this is a sign of weakness (McGee and Warms 265-266). Steward is responsible for the distinction between culture type and culture core. A societys culture type is how a culture uses a specific technology to exploit the environment. Culture core accounts for the features of a culture that play a role. Knowing both the culture type and core of a society can prove useful when studying how the society aintains subsistence (McGee and Warms 228). Up until this point in history, few if any sociologists had touched upon race. Then, the rise of the black sociologist occurred in the form of W. E. B. DuBois. DuBois was a Marxist and saw blacks as the modern day proletariat. He believed it was segregation that kept black from obtaining jobs and in turn bad jobs led blacks to lower economic status. DuBois believed the only way to create chang e was through education, though he admitted that education was useless under segregation (Collins and Makowsky 196). DuBois also suggested that blacks have a double consciousness. Blacks feel caught between two identities: one black, and one American. These two identities divert blacks attention from fulfilling either identity to its fullest extent. It also places undue mental stress on African-Americans to keep switching identities to match their circumstances (Farganis 180). Several years later, Erving Goffman, another symbolic interactionalist, contributed his theory of Dramaturgy. Goffman stated that each one of us has a back stage and a front stage. The back stage is who we really are when we think we are not being judged. Goffman categorizes this as a accurate identity. The front stage is the act we put on for the rest of society to see. This is what Goffman labels a fabricated identity (Farganis 360). There are four steps to managing a fabricated identity. First, one must control the setting. Then, an individual puts on a personal front. Next, one will play the part they have created. And finally, the individual must manage the audience (Farganis 366-367). Another influential sociologist was Michele Foucault. He belonged to the new movement of Contemporary European Thought under the umbrella of Post-Modernism. Foucault suggested that over time, societies discourse, or presumed truths, have changed. For example, during the middle ages, society at large made the assumption that everything in the world could be explained through religion. However, during the enlightenment, the discourse of western thought shifted to look towards science for an answer to all phenomena (Faganis 411). In post-modernism, sociologists propose that there are no ultimate truths that science, religion, or any other institution can define (Farganis 413). At the same time, Claude Levi-Strauss is studying language from an anthropological standpoint. His major contribution to the field is through his inclination to approach linguistics from a structuralist point of view. Levi-Strauss asserts that language should be studied to discover the underlying structures that create societies. Previous theorist such as Boas thought language was important to study because it showed how we categorize the world (McGee and Warms 335). Around this time, Sally Slocum is attempting to perform a Feminist Critique. Female anthropologists and sociologist of the past had too often focused on the importance of men in society and glossed over the contributions of women. Slocum pointed out that women are second class citizens in most societies because of their association with nature which was seen as untamed and therefore dangerous. Men were associated with culture because they were the controllers of culture. This created an image of men as being the more civilized of the two genders. Women were aligned with nature because of their ability to bear children and the work they commonly did producing, instead of killing as men often did (McGee and Warms 419). These anthropologists and sociologists of the past have provided current thinkers with a basis for further research and exploration. Today, Anthropology and Sociology are growing fields of interest across the world. Thousands of anthropologists and sociologists chip away at lifes major questions every day. As the canon of literature grows, human beings grow closer and closer towards self-actualization.

Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Drugs

Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Drugs Characteristics and risk factors of Cardiovascular Drugs induced Adverse Drug Reactions: Hospital based Active Surveillance Study. Abstract: Background: Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) is one of the major drug-related problems in hospitalized patients. Several studies report the incidence various from 10 50% of all hospital admissions due to ADRs and no recent data available on the safety of cardiovascular drug from India. Aim: This study aims 1). To estimate incidence and characteristics of ADRs due to cardiovascular drugs in patients admitted in cardiology unit of a tertiary care teaching hospital. 2) To identify the risk factors for ADRs in hospitalized patients treated with cardiovascular drugs. Methods: A prospective active surveillance study was carried out in the cardiology department of a south Indian tertiary care teaching hospital for eight months. Population averaged Poisson regression [Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE)] models was used to estimate the adjusted relative risk associated with ADR. Results: The overall incidence of cardiovascular drug induced ADRs was 31.8%. A total of 757 patients treated cardiovascular medications. Of which 241 patients (31.8%) including 122 (16.1%) females and 119 (15.7%) males reported at least one ADR. Aspirin produced the highest number of ADRs (150; 38.7%) followed by Heparin (45; 11.6%), Atorvastatin (24; 6.2%) and Ramipril (24; 6.2%). The causality assessment reveals that 85.3% of ADRs were probable in nature. GEE was used to estimate the adjusted relative risk of each covariate associated with ADRs. The predictors of ADRs identified were: female gender, age > 60 years, multiple drug therapy (p= 0.0231) and concurrent diseases like diabetes, drugs like Heparin (RR-2.90, 95% CI 2.22-3.8) and Enalapril (RR-1.95, 95% CI 1.34-2.83). Conclusion: The incidence of cardiovascular ADRs was 31.8%. The most common drugs causing ADRs were the anti- platelet and anticoagulant class of drugs. Female gender, age > 60 years, multiple drug therapy, concurrent illness and certain drugs like heparin were identified as potential predictors for adverse reactions. Keywords: adverse drug reactions, hospitalized patients, cardiovascular drugs, pharmacovigilance, Risk factors Key Messages: This study reports the risk factors for adverse reactions to cardiovascular drugs from an Indian clinical setting. The incidence of cardiovascular drugs induced ADRs was 31.8%, which is higher than many reported studies. Anti-platelet and anticoagulant drugs were commonly associated with ADRs in the study population. Introduction: Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) is one of the major drug-related problems in hospitalized patients. ADRs are one of the major drug-related problems, resulting in increased morbidity and mortality and healthcare costs.[1-3]The WHO defines an ADR as a response to a drug that is noxious and unintended and occurs at doses normally used in man for the prophylaxis, diagnosis or therapy of disease, or for modification of physiological function.[4] The prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) has increased in recent years and it has been estimated that CVDs are the most common cause of death.[5] Reports on drug related problems including adverse drug reactions associated with cardiovascular pharmacotherapy are available.[6-10]Studies report that cardiovascular drugs may account for 10 to 50% of all hospital admissions due to ADRs.[11-13] There are reports of serious adverse drug events with cardiovascular drugs.[14]Continuous monitoring of ADRs are important in patients treated with cardiovascular drugs since, these patients who need multiple drug therapies to treat their comorbid conditions and other related risks[15] Various methods are used to detect ADRs in hospitalized patients.[16] Analyzing the adverse reaction data in relation to the presence of risk factors provide the link between the ADRs and the associated factors. Such analysis might help to identify patients who are at increased risk for the adverse reaction and therefore employing suitable monitoring and the preventive procedure is possible.[17] Reports are available on the risk factors for adverse reactions.[18-20] Studies have shown that the cardiovascular drugs are most common cause of ADRs.[6,21]A university hospital-based studies report 49 % ADRs are due to commonly used cardiovascular drugs (nitrates, digoxin, propranolol, heparin, warfarin, anti-hypertensive and anti-arrhythmic drugs)[22] A number of studies are available on the adverse effects of cardiovascular drugs. In the Indian context data on adverse effects of the cardiovascular drugs is not available. Therefore, the current study was planned to evaluate ADRs due to cardiovascular drugs in hospitalized patients. This study aims 1). To estimate incidence and characteristics of ADRs due to cardiovascular drugs in patients admitted in cardiology unit of a tertiary care teaching hospital. 2) To identify the risk factors for ADRs in hospitalized patients treated with cardiovascular drugs. Subjects and Methods: A prospective active surveillance study was carried out in the department of cardiology of a tertiary care teaching hospital for eight months (Feb to Sep 2009). The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the institutional ethical committee. All patients admitted to the cardiovascular units were monitored and evaluated for cardiovascular drugs induced adverse reactions. Patients who were previously treated or newly prescribed with cardiovascular drugs were monitored and followed for detecting and recording of ADRs. Adverse drug reactions were identified by conducting a daily patient charts review, patient interview, and consultations with treating physicians. In the suspected cases, past medical/medication history of patients were collected. In addition to patients medication history, information on co-morbidities was also collected. We used the WHO criteria for defining ADRs.[4] For every identified patient with ADR, two patients without ADRs were enrolled as matched controls. The information pertaining to the suspected ADRs was collected and documented in a specially designed ADR computerized documentation database for further assessment.[23] An ADR alert card was distributed to those patients who experienced severe adverse reactions to prevent further re-exposure of the suspected drug. All ADRs were reviewed and assessed by the research team. The documented ADRs were evaluated and characterized respect to patient demographics, nature of the reactions, drugs and organ system involved and outcome of the reactions. Using standard approach, the Causality, severity, preventability and the presences of predisposing factors of the reactions were assessed and reported. Patients age and sex were considered for the analysis. ADRs were classified as either Type A or Type B according to the system introduced by Rawlins and Thompson.[24] The suspected drugs were classified according to Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification based on WHO-ATC Index 2009.[25]Using WHO Adverse Reaction Terminology documented ADRs were further classified into various organ system classes.[26] Management strategies employed for the ADRs were categorized as drug withdrawal, dose reduction, additional treatment for ADR and no change in a regimen without any additional treatment. Patient outcomes were reported as fatal, fully recovered, recovering and unknown. The causality of suspected ADRs was assessed using Naranjos ADR probability scale and classified into certain, probable, possible and unlikely to be drug induced depending upon the level of association.[27] The preventability of ADRs was analyzed and categorized into definitely preventable, probably preventable and not preventable using the modified criteria of Schumock and Thornton by Lau et al.[28]Using the criterion developed by Hartwig et al., for severity assessment, we assessed the suspected ADRs and classified into mild, moderate and severe reactions.[29] The onset of ADRs was assessed and classified into sub-acute, latent and acute groups.[4] Predisposing/risk factors Many patient-related factors predispose the occurrence of ADRs. The patient related factors like age, gender, multiple and inter-current disease states, and polypharmacy are considered as significant risk factor for developing ADR.[30] Patients age was categorized into 6 groups (less than 20 years, 21-30 years, 31-40 years, 41-50 years, 51-60 years, more than 60 years). Polypharmacy was categorized as minor (2-3 drugs), moderate (4-5 drugs) or major (5 drugs) based on the classification by Veehof et al.[31] Gender of the patient was also considered as a one of the predispose factor for the development of ADRs. Multiple disease state ( > 2 coded diseases) of the patient at the time of reaction also include in the analysis. The overall incidence of ADRs was calculated using the total number of in-patient episodes which resulted in ADRs in relation to the total number of in-patients followed during the study period. The length of hospital stay for each patient was collected from Hospital Patient Administrative System (HPAS) and used to compare the Length of Stay (LOS) between patients with and without ADRs. Additional hospital stay due to ADRs was assessed using the nature and clinical features of ADRs, discussion with treating medical staffs and assessment of patients medical records. Statistical analysis Descriptive statistics was used summarize the patient demographic and clinical characteristics like gender, diagnosis, a number of drug dispensed, the frequency of ADR, drugs involved, organ system involved and severity of ADRs. Mean with 95% confidence interval was used to summarize age and LOS. Chi-square test was used to find the association between age group, gender, the LOS with and without ADRs. Relative risk was used to measure the strength of association. The data were hierarchically arranged, to count the multiple ADR episodes which can occur with multiple admissions. Population averaged Poisson regression (GEE) was used to estimate the adjusted relative risk of each covariate associated with ADR.[32,33] Further compound symmetry was used to account for the within-subject correlation. All analysis was performed using SPSS for window 15 (SPSS Inc., South Asia, Bangalore). The significance level was set at P Results: A total of 757 patients (431 men and 326 women) using cardiovascular medications were intensively monitored. The mean age of the study population was 57.21  ± 14.22 years (18 -92 years). The average length of hospital stay was 10.6  ± 5.8 days. Overall, the incidence of ADRs was 31.84%. Two hundred and fourteen patients including 122 females and 119 males reported at least one ADR. Maximum of six ADRs were reported from one patient. Compared to males, females developed more of ADRs was observed more in females when (p 0.0001). The length of stay was increased due to ADR for a minimum of 3 days and a maximum of 28 days. The frequency of different age groups in patients with and without ADRs is presented in table-1. The main diagnosis of the study population is listed in table-1. Age group of less than 20 years is excluded because of lower sample size. Age group of more than 60 years had more ADRs compared to other age groups. Cardiovascular risk factors of a patient with and without ADR are shown in table-2. The most frequent system-organ class affected by ADRs was Platelet, bleeding clotting disorders (188, 48.89%), followed by metabolic and nutritional disorders (53, 13.66%) and gastrointestinal system disorders (50, 12.89%) (Table-3). The most common strategy for management of ADRs was drug withdrawal (94.3%) and dose alteration (5.4%) (Table-4). The mean length of hospital stay was 13.3 and 6.5 days for patients with and without ADR respectively. The length of stay was found to be longer in patients with ADR. Aspirin produced the highest number of reactions (150; 38.7%) followed by heparin (45; 11.6%), Atorvastatin (24; 6.2%) and Ramipril (24; 6.2%) (Table -3) with Platelet, bleeding clotting disorders (188, 48.89%). The most frequently reported reaction was bleeding (186; 47.9%) followed by gastric ulcer (52, 13.4%) (Table-3). The causality assessment of ADRs revealed that 85.31% of ADRs were classified as probable, followed by 7.99% as definite and 6.7% as possible. 64.4 % patients recovered from the ADRs and 35.6 % were recovering at the time of discharge (Table-4). The GEE analysis shows that the female, alcoholics, smokers and patients those taking more than 7 drugs had a higher risk for developing an ADR. (Table-2). Statistical analyses also revealed that patient taking Heparin (RR 2.90, 95% CI 2.22-3.80, Enalapril (RR 1.95, 95% CI 1.34-2.83), warfarin (RR 1.69, 95% CI 1.33-2.54) had a significantly increased probability of developing of ADRs (Table-5). Discussion: ADRs can significantly increase patients mortality or morbidity and consequently higher healthcare expenditure.[34] The study findings reveal that developing an ADRs in hospitalized patients substantially contribute to patients morbidity, further increasing the disease burden and cost of managing ADRs. The incidence of ADRs (31.8%) found in this study was twice higher than a previously reported systematic review of international studies (15.1%).[2] The present study showed that females experienced a higher incidence of ADRs (9.87%) when compared to males (7.23%) which are similar to the findings of previously published studies.[1,35-37]Several reasons have been put forth for this observed difference. Men and women have a different pharmacodynamic response to various drugs; which may consider as one of the factors for women to develop more number of ADRs. But in a study reported by Jose., on comparable Indian population male patients were found to have more ADRs than female population .[38] The incidence of ADRs was higher in the elderly patients (31.19%; age > 60 Years) compare to other age groups. (à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡2= 23.03, df-5, p 0.0001); this finding is similar to the results of Mohebbi et al.[19] Studies have shown that the incidence of ADRs may increase with increasing age. Again, due to multiple comorbid conditions and receive multiple drug therapy the elderly patients tend to have a higher risk for developing an ADR. In addition, older individuals undergo changes in drug responsiveness and disposition.[39] It appears that elderly patients need more attention to prevent the occurrence of ADRs. In this study, the incidence of Aspirin-induced ADRs was 38.7% (n=150); which was the highest rate compared to other cardiovascular drugs in this study. However, High rates of ADRs with streptokinase have been reported previously.[40]Studies reported a rate of amiodarone-induced ADRs as 16%, whereas in the current study it was too low at 0.5%.[41] This might be due to the lower use of amiodarone in the current study subjects. In a study conducted by Wiffen et al., investigating ADRs induced by all groups of drugs, warfarin was among the top three drugs causing ADRs.[42] In our study, the rate of ADRs attributed to warfarin was just 3.6%, whereas heparin-induced bleeding was the second highest ADR in this study population (45, 11.6%). In this study, we found central nervous and gastrointestinal systems are the most frequently affected organ system classes by ADRs. These findings were similar to the findings of a study conducted in Iran.[13]The incidence of preventable ADRs in this study (6.9%) is comparably lower than those detected in other studies.[34]This might be probably due to intensive monitoring of CCU patients in our study. The rate of serious ADRs (22.2%) detected in this study tend to be higher than other studies.[14] Population averaged Poisson regression (GEE) model showed that factors like gender and age of more than 60 years, multiple drug therapy and the presence of co-morbidity were risk factors for experiencing ADRs. The average duration of drug usage was found to be longer in patients without ADR. It appears that most of the ADRs have been noted shortly after initiating cardiovascular drugs and the incidence of ADRs in this study population was not related to the duration of usage. Similar to findings of many other studies, increasing the number of drugs led to increased frequency of ADRs. Conclusion The finding of this study indicates that cardiovascular drugs cause serious and frequent adverse reactions. The incidence of cardiovascular ADRs was 31.84%. The most common drugs causing ADRs were the anti-platelet and anticoagulant class of drugs. Female gender, age more than 60 years and use of more than 7 drugs was found to be the risk factors for developing ADRs. The identified incidence was higher than many reported studies. The current study identified the common ADRs and their predictors. Patients with identified predictors for adverse drug reactions can be intensively monitored and necessary preventive measures can be initiated if signs of reactions are observed.

John P Roche-The Founding Fathers: A Reform Caucus in Action Essay

John P. Roche published a Thesis â€Å"The Founding Fathers a Reform Caucus in Action† where managed to dwell upon the significance of the contribution made by the builders of a country. He characterizes them as great contributors. Apart from that, the author claims that the creation of the constitution was a natural and entirely democracy connected process, which equally contributed to the creation of state, economy, and politics. He calls a target reader to give the Founders acknowledgements for the big efforts they made and value their efforts, which resulted in the arising of the strong and influential country. The members of the Philadelphia convention were obliged to perform significant formation work to satisfy all the needs and fill in all the political gaps that were previously overlooked. He proves that the motive of founders was fair and aimed at the promotion of prosperity of a state. What was an essential concern for the founding fathers when drafting the articles of confederation? According to the position of P. Roche, it was a significant contribution to gather Philadelphia conference and change the social and political orders. Thanks to their bright minds and legislative competence, they managed to imply changes and implement the same political rights for all citizens. Apart from that, they defended the interests of the layman. They led to conclude that the government was not strong enough and more innovative measures were needed. Founders managed to keep the state functioning correctly by modifying the constitutional issues. The task was rather tough – they were obliged to keep everyone happy and look for the ways of satisfying the demands of all citizens. Founders managed to elaborate and structure the statute of the future state. They launched a powerful mechanism that proves to be effective for many years. Thanks to their contribution, the state’s economy is stable; the political system functions appropriately and proves to be well built.   Roche claims that the most prominent contribution of the Founders a successful convincing of men from all parts of the country that the changes are necessary in the process of creation of a strong and united nation. I support the position of Roche. According to his point of view, Founders contributed to the development of USA exceedingly being oriented on the interests of people. Their most significant achievements were that they have realized that to win respect and acknowledgment of people, it is necessary to satisfy their interests. Politicians have realized that the Articles of Confederation were a failure. They came to the conclusion that the USA would not develop. The ability to think globally and make right decisions made them successful and efficient rulers. Each of Founding Fathers made his contribution to the development of the state. B. Franklin propagated the idea of political self-determination of the North American colonies, for the first time called them states (states), advocated their confederation. Concerning general political questions, he promoted the natural equality of people. The emergence of inequality, property, and laws associated with the creation of society and state. B. Franklin advocated the legal equality of citizens, the democratic consolidation of their rights, equality of votes of states, powers of the Senate and the US Congress. He laid the democratic traditions of local constitutionalism and federalism. How does Jefferson support his major premise in the body of the declaration of independence? Jefferson still hoped for the peaceful rendering by England of independence of the American colonies. He added a list of abuses, which England made to the citizens. As the principal author of the preliminary version of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson proceeded from a democratic and revolutionary interpretation of the natural-law doctrine and substantiated the legality of the separation of colonies from England and the formation of an independent state. The statement of natural and civil rights, the justification of people’s position in the society and the people’s right to express one’s position made the Declaration an outstanding theoretical and political document of the era. These are the essential points of the author of the Declaration of Independence of the United States. First, for Jefferson, there are apparent truths – all people are created equal, endowed with inalienable rights: to life, freedom, desire for happiness. These ideas confirmed the unacceptability of the class privileges and feudal rights, the equality of colonists with the inhabitants of the metropolis. Secondly, to ensure human rights, according to Jefferson, people are founded by states, governments. Thus, the people’s right to revolution was substantiated. Third, the author of the Declaration consistently advocated a republican form of government for the country, based on universal suffrage, equal representation in legislative institutions, the election of executive bodies and judges, the variability of judges, jurors, sheriffs, and extensive self-governance. T. Jefferson is a supporter of a clear division of the competence of the three authorities in the republic. I was convinced that state power should promote and not restrict citizens’ freedom. Fourth, the actual basis of the new country government, according to Jefferson, is the equality of â€Å"every citizen, the level of personal and property rights and the disposal of them.† In his opinion, equality is based on the will of the people and should be consistently carried out in every paragraph of the constitution. This equality must be realized primarily in the general electoral law, the right of the people to elect officials and judges. Fifth, Jefferson claimed that the right becomes the right because it is the will of the nation. However, he saw the danger of unification of legislation for all states, its threat to self-government. Sixth, Jefferson does not leave hope that humanity will soon â€Å"learn to derive the benefit of every right and authority that it owns or can take upon itself.† The ineffectiveness of unlimited power, its abuse can lead to corruption. At a certain point, Founding Fathers have realized, that arose the need for implements changes. For that reason. They gathered to reshape the structure of state and develop a new set of constitution articles allowing regulating all political and social issues. They managed to achieve nationhood. These people managed to understand that sometimes it is necessary to take control over the situation in the country and implement changes even if citizens do not see the necessity of such radical measures. The period of the struggle for independence of the United States was marked by their victory, the creation of a state confederation. Bibliography Woll, Peter. American Government: Readings and Cases. 16th ed.

Master of Business Administration Essay

Pricing policy refers to the policy of setting the price of the product or products and services by the management after taking into account of various internal and external factors, forces and its own business objectives. Pricing Policy basically depends on price theory that is the corner stone of economic theory. Pricing is considered as one of the basic and central problems of economic theory in a modern economy. Fixing prices are the most important aspect of managerial decision making because market price charged by the company affects the present and future production plans, pattern of distribution, nature of marketing etc. Generally speaking, in economic theory, we take into account of only two parties, i. e. , buyers and sellers while fixing the prices. However, in practice many parties are associated with pricing of a product. They are rival competitors, potential rivals, middlemen, wholesalers, retailers, commission agents and above all the Govt. Hence, we should give due consideration to the influence exerted by these parties in the process of price determination. Broadly speaking, the various factors and forces that affect the price are divided into two categories. They are as follows: I External Factors (Outside factors) 1. Demand, supply and their determinants. 2. Elasticity of demand and supply. 3. Degree of competition in the market. 4. Size of the market. 5. Good will, name, fame and reputation of a firm in the market. 6. Trends in the market. 7. Purchasing power of the buyers. 8. Bargaining power of customers 9. Buyers behavior in respect of particular product II. Internal Factors (Inside Factors) 1. Objectives of the firm. 2. Production Costs. 3. Quality of the product and its characteristics. 4. Scale of production. 5. Efficient management of resources. 6. Policy towards percentage of profits and dividend distribution. 7. Advertising and sales promotion policies. 8. Wage policy and sales turn over policy etc. 9. The stages of the product on the product life cycle. 10. Use pattern of the product. Objectives of the Price Policy: A firm has multiple objectives today. In spite of several objectives, the ultimate aim of every business concern is to maximize its profits. This is possible when the returns exceed costs. In this context, setting an ideal price for a product assumes greater importance. Pricing objectives has to be established by top management to ensure not only that the company’s profitability is adequate but also that pricing is complementary to the total strategy of the organization. While formulating the pricing policy, a firm has to consider various economic, social, political and other factors. The Following objectives are to be considered while fixing the prices of the product. 1. Profit maximization in the short term The primary objective of the firm is to maximize its profits. Pricing policy as an instrument to achieve this objective should be formulated in such a way as to maximize the sales revenue and profit. Maximum profit refers to the highest possible of profit. In the short run, a firm not only should be able to recover its total costs, but also should get excess revenue over costs. This will build the morale of the firm and instill the spirit of confidence in its operations. 2. Profit optimization in the long run The traditional profit maximization hypothesis may not prove beneficial in the long run. With the sole motive of profit making a firm may resort to several kinds of unethical practices like charging exorbitant prices, follow Monopoly Trade Practices (MTP), Restrictive Trade Practices (RTP) and Unfair Trade Practices (UTP) etc. This may lead to opposition from the people. In order to over- come these evils, a firm instead of profit maximization, and aims at profit optimization. Optimum profit refers to the most ideal or desirable level of profit. Hence, earning the most reasonable or optimum profit has become a part and parcel of a sound pricing policy of a firm in recent years. 3. Price Stabilization Price stabilization over a period of time is another objective. The prices as far as possible should not fluctuate too often. Price instability creates uncertain atmosphere in business circles. Sales plan becomes difficult under such circumstances. Hence, price stability is one of the pre requisite conditions for steady and persistent growth of a firm. A stable price policy only can win the confidence of customers and may add to the good will of the concern. It builds up the reputation and image of the firm. 4. Facing competitive situation One of the objectives of the pricing policy is to face the competitive situations in the market. In many cases, this policy has been merely influenced by the market share psychology. Wherever companies are aware of specific competitive products, they try to match the prices of their products with those of their rivals to expand the volume of their business. Most of the firms are not merely interested in meeting competition but are keen to prevent it. Hence, a firm is always busy with its counter business strategy. 5. Maintenance of market share Market share refers to the share of a firm’s sales of a particular product in the total sales of all firms in the market. The economic strength and success of a firm is measured in terms of its market share. In a competitive world, each firm makes a successful attempt to expand its market share. If it is impossible, it has to maintain its existing market share. Any decline in market share is a symptom of the poor performance of a firm. Hence, the pricing policy has to assist a firm to maintain its market share at any cost. Ques2. Explain the important features of long run AC curve. Ans: Long run AC curves Long run is defined as a period of time where adjustments to changed conditions are complete. It is actually a period during which the quantities of all factors, variable as well as fixed factors can be adjusted. Hence, there are no fixed costs in the long run. In the short run, a firm has to carry on its production within the existing plant capacity, but in the long run it is not tied up to a particular plant capacity. If demand for the product increases, it can expand output by enlarging its plant capacity. It can construct new buildings or hire them, install new machines, employ administrative and other permanent staff. It can make use of the existing as well as new staff in the most efficient way and there is lot of scope for making indivisible factors to become divisible factors. On the other hand, if demand for the product declines, a firm can cut down its production permanently. The size of the plant can also be reduced and other expenditure can be minimized. Hence, production cost comes down to a greater extent in the long run. As all costs are variable in the long run, the total of these costs is total cost of production. Hence, the distinction between fixed and variables costs in the total cost of production will disappear in the long run. In the long run only the average total cost is important and considered in taking long term output decisions. Important features of long run AC curve 1. Tangent curve Different SAC curves represent different operational capacities of different plants in the short run. LAC curve is locus of all these points of tangency. The SAC curve can never cut a LAC curve though they are tangential to each other. This implies that for any given level of output, no SAC curve can ever be below the LAC curve. Hence, SAC cannot be lower than the LAC in the ling run. Thus, LAC curve is tangential to various SAC curves. 2. Envelope curve It is known as Envelope curve because it envelopes a group of SAC curves appropriate to different levels of output. 3. Flatter Unshaped or dish-shaped curve. The LAC curve is also U shaped or dish shaped cost curve. But It is less pronounced and much flatter in nature. LAC gradually falls and rises due to economies and diseconomies of scale. 4. Planning curve. The LAC cure is described as the Planning Curve of the firm because it represents the least cost of producing each possible level of output. This helps in producing optimum level of output at the minimum LAC. This is possible when the entrepreneur is selecting the optimum scale plant. Optimum scale plant is that size where the minimum point of SAC is tangent to the minimum point of LAC. . Minimum point of LAC curve should be always lower than the minimum point of SAC curve. This is because LAC can never be higher than SAC or SAC can never be lower than LAC. The LAC curve will touch the optimum plant SAC curve at its minimum point. A rational entrepreneur would select the optimum scale plant. Optimum scale plant is that size at which SAC is tangent to LAC, such that both the curves h ave the minimum point of tangency. In the diagram, OM2 is regarded as the optimum scale of output, as it has the least per unit cost. At OM2 output LAC = SAC.

What Should Jennifer Do Essay Example

What Should Jennifer Do Essay Example What Should Jennifer Do Essay What Should Jennifer Do Essay Heather has a point in saying that Jennifer should consider the job offer in Korea despite the contract that was signed in the Midwest Consulting. She has a point by saying that it will be more difficult for both Jennifer and the Midwest Consulting if Jennifer will continue to work there knowing that there is a better and more suited opportunity for her across the Pacific. However, Jennifer should consider talking and negotiating to the Midwest company. After all, there is a binding contract between her and the company. She should take some time in considering how she can argue in her defense. The company has all the legitimacy to file a case against her if she will abandon the contract. The only solution for this is to come up with a good talk in the company defending and arguing for her actions. The company would surely understand her situation if she can present it in a good way. Jennifer should never abandon and just fly to Korea without the permission of the Midwest consulting.I n her negotiation with the company, Jennifer should prepare some incentive for the Midwest company in case the company does now allow her to go. One of the best thing Jennifer can do is to present and refer some potential employee that can take over her position. In this case, the company will not be damaged in anyway. Lastly, in case the negotiation is successful, Jennifer should never forget that she must hold a paper saying that the Midwest clearly let her go without any obligation. In this sense, Jennifer can fly to Korea with ease that she took care all the problems that may arise in the future.ReferencesHooker, J. (2001) A Case Study: What Should Jennifer do? Carnegie Mellon University. Print. Accessed 6 June 2010.

Analyzing Themes of To Kill a Mockingbird essays

Analyzing Themes of To Kill a Mockingbird essays Analyzing Themes of To Kill A Mockingbird Harper Lee's first novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, displays the life of a small southern family struggling through the depression in Maycomb, Alabama. Similar to any other southern town, the prejudiced whites look down upon the Negroes. The family overcomes many obstacles thrown at them by the prejudiced town. Throughout To Kill a Mockingbird, the major themes of courage, innocence, and prejudice are instrumental in the portrayal of life in a small southern community. The prime challenge to anyone's courage is the Radley house. Jem is known for his courage, and it appears that even the Radley house doesnt scare him. Dill wants to test Jem's courage by betting that Jem will not touch the Radley house. Jem has to accept because he cannot allow Scout and Dill to think hes as a coward. "His courage was a source of pride" (****courage 1) Curiosity is one of courage's best allies. It helps breed courage, especially in children, but it finally gets the best of Jem and Dill, and they to sneak up to the Radley house to get a quick peak of Boo. They get caught and have to run away. As they are running away, Jem's pants are snagged on the fence, and he has to leave them. Eventually he has to go back to get them to avoid letting Atticus know he went to the Radleys place. Risking a visit to the Radleys was easier than facing Atticus. Rage helps Jem become more courageous. When Mrs. Dubose criticizes Atticus, Jems rage gives him the courage to destroy her Camellia bushes even though he knows she carries a confederate pistol with her. When Atticus finds out, he sends Jem to read for Mrs. Dubose who struggles to beat her morphine addiction. Jem learns courage from Mrs. Dubose's example. Scout shows the least amount of courage. She follows the boys around and wants to join in their fights. However, her respect for Atticus gives her the courage to refrain f...

Developing an implementation plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Developing an implementation plan - Essay Example To convince hospital executives of the importance of adopting stress management progams, the proposal first has to show how the stress management program will relieve some of their concerns about the hospital For example, the association between less stress in the student population and reduced incidences of errors will show the hospital executives how they stand to benefit through fewer lawsuits or claims of unprofessional behavior if they agree to the implementation of stress management programs. It is also very important to show how, in the recent past, there are medical institutions that have successfully implemented stress management programs. Researching about stress management for hospital workers shows the hospital executives that the implementation of such programs within their own organizations could be successful while also bringing many benefits (Sohn, Kim, Kim and Han, 2006). When presenting a proposal on implementing stress management plans, it is also important to incl ude a plan with a practical program that could be implemented immediately. This shows the executives that this will not simply be another program that they are tasked with overseeing and constructing, and which, should it fail, will negatively affect their standing in the medical community (Vahey, Aiken, Sloane, Clarke and Vargas, 2004). Description of current problem, issue, or deficit requiring a change Health care occupations such as nursing have long been known to cause a lot of stress for nurses as well as other medical practitioners. In addition, these jobs also cause a lot of psychological distress because nurses are constantly dealing with death or illness in their patients; many of whom they develop close relationships with (Murphy, 2003). In medical institutions, nurses have to deal with work overload, other people’s pain and distress, the absence of role clarity when tackling infectious diseases and time constraints, particularly in incidences when there are nurse shortages. Such stressors physically and psychological affect nurses so deeply that their discharge of their duties is affected (McCauley and Irwin, 2006). Stress can result in common absenteeism in the nursing workforce, medical errors, and poor turnover. Moreover, worker-focused or organizational interventions can be quite effective in reducing stress among medical workers. Many hospitals at present incorporate stress relief programs for nurses that include meditation programs (Rambaldini, Wilson, Rath, Lin, Gold, Kapral and Straus, 2005). Moreover, these are rarely effective because they can only reduce stress on a temporary basis. The best solution, though, is one that combines both organizational and worker based components as these both include short-time and long-term treatment and prevention components (Mackay, Cousins, Kelly, Lee and McCaig, 2004). Hospitals should also seek to incorporate regular physical and psychological check-up programs for their workers. Hospitals sho uld also coordinate programs that allow for frequent sabbatical leaves which allow nurses to engage in personal stress relief methods. There are other ways in which hospitals can assist in the relieving of the occupational stress that regularly affects nurses. For example, hospitals can seek to ensure that every nurse’

Drug Patch Design Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Drug Patch Design - Research Paper Example NASA approached me to design this patch. The design I came up with in my mind was of a patch that could be worn by all astronauts and which would last at least for 60 hours so that less umber of patches would be needed. In my present project I will be studying and analyzing the rates of diffusivity in different skins while altering parametes such as diffusivity (D), thickness of membrane (L) and concentration of Scopolamine drug (Cp). The next layer would be the reservoir layer where a certain diluted concentration of the drug would be present. It must be remembered that the concentration is extremely important since even a slightly higher concentration would have serious deleterious effects (Parrott,p1).The layers beneath this would all be permeable such that they allow the drug to slowly diffuse out of the reservoir layer and travel up to the skin. Once the drug reaches the skin it would diffuse into the skin and enter the blood. Therefore a person wearing this patch would have a constant dose of a diluted form of the drug which would help one in overcoming motion sickness and perform duties efficiently. The patch I designed was tested a few times and recorded the values of skin thickness, diffusion rate, time and range of flux. While running the test simulations I studied 3 different test diffusivities and 3 different membrane thickness along with 7 different concentrations. All the tests run under the different test parameters helped me construct the graphs from where I obtained important conclusions. Looking at the graphs we can see that with time both concentration as well as flux gradually reduce and come to a zero. My patch that I finalized worked with all skins and concentrations. The main scope of the test stimulations was to come up with a patch design that would be beneficial for astronauts. Firstly it must meet the time criteria i.e. it should last for several hours. Secondly the concentration should be just right. If the drug